Effects of Malnutrition - Free Essay Example

1. Outline the metabolic changes that occur during starvation/inadequate nutritional intake (not related to disease) that could result in weight loss. During starvation, carbohydrates are depleted after 24 hours, major substrates for gluconeogenesis are amino acids that come from skeletal muscle protein that breakdown, ketone body concentrations rise during prolonged starvation and result in significant excretion of ketones, and the metabolism allows consistent fuel supply to the brain and other tissues during prolonged starvation. 2. Read the consensus statement of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics/American Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: Characteristics recommended for the identification and documentation of adult malnutrition. Explain the differences between malnutrition associated with chronic disease and malnutrition associated with acute illness and inflammation. Malnutrition related to chronic disease is when inflammation is mild to moderate but constant (chronic). An example is rheumatoid arthritis. Malnutrition related to acute illness and inflammation is when the inflammation is acute and at a severe degree. An example is major trauma. 3. Find the current definitions of malnutrition in the United States using the current ICD 10 codes. List all of them and describe the criteria for one of the diagnoses. Malnutrition includes codes E40-E46 going into a category of type 1 or type 2. E40 Kwashiorkor E41 Nutritional marasmus E42 Marasmic kwashiorkor E43 Unspecified severe protein-calorie malnutrition E44 Protein-calorie malnutrition of moderate and mild degree E45 Retarded development following protein-calorie malnutrition E46 Unspecified protein-calorie malnutrition Type 1 excludes: intestinal malabsorption ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code K90 sequelae of protein-calorie malnutrition ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code E64.0 Type 2 excludes: nutritional anemia ICD-10-CM Range D50-D53 Starvation ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code T73.0 4. Current ICD definitions of malnutrition use biochemical markers as a component of the diagnostic criteria. Consider the effect inflammation has on visceral proteins and how that may impact the clinician’s ability to diagnose malnutrition. Discuss the following clinical findings and relate to inflammation and ability to diagnose malnutrition. a) Why is there down-regulation of albumin synthesis? Relate to positive acute-phase protein for the immune system (antibodies, complement, cytokines, C-reactive protein), clotting (fibrinogen) and wound healing. Malnutrition or long term starvation can reduce a full positive acute phase protein reaction while reducing the negative part as well by the starvation process itself. This starts the depression of hepatic protein synthesis. Which this moves on to affecting pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain and the rest of the inflammation process. Albumin is characterized as a negative acute phase protein and is affected by inflammatory conditions and drugs which affects liver function. But there are so many disease processes that alter the level of albumin that it becomes an unreliable serum marker for malnutrition. b) Why is the production of cytokines such as IL-I, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) increased and what is the impact on metabolism and protein synthesis (albumin, prealbumin, transferrin, retinol-binding protein) and muscle repair? Because pro inflammatory cytokines are released, the vascular system and inflammatory cells are activated. These responses are associated with an increase of production of cytokines. Cytokines IL-I, Il-6 and TNF modulate intermediary metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein, regulate hypothalamic and pituitary outflow and act in the brain to reduce intake of food. c) What is impact of edema and the ability to interpret some biochemical tests? Edema is when fluids build up incorrectly in your tissues which will cause abnormal swelling of your body parts. Protein is a common cause of malnutrition edema because if you have the right amount of albumin in your blood, your body can maintain a balance keeping water out. But without enough protein your cells retain water which then leads to edema. So it can be hard to interpret different tests because of the different things that can happen in your body that leads to that fluid retention which can cause more problems. d) What happens to resting energy expenditure? I believe that a person’s resting energy expenditure would decrease because if they are not eating enough because malnourished then their body naturally would not have enough to keep burning so it would slow down because it doesn’t have enough nutrients to stay functional like before if getting proper nourishment. e) If metabolic stress is prolonged, do you feel albumin/prealbumin measurements are an accurate diagnosis of malnutrition when inflammation is present? Why or why not? I believe it is not because of what has been said about albumin. I read that it is affected by inflammatory conditions and drugs that affects the liver. Also by many disease processes that tend to alter the level of albumin regularly that it becomes an unreliable serum marker for testing for malnutrition. 5. Mr. Campbell was ordered a mechanical soft diet when he was admitted to the hospital. Describe how his meals will be modified with this diet order. This type of diet is for people who have trouble chewing and swallowing. This will include foods being chopped, ground, and pureed with no need for a knife because they will easily break apart. This diet will allow Mr. Campbell to eat more and obtain the nutrients he needs to help heal his body. The mechanical soft diet includes dairy, vegetables, fruits, starches, meat or meat substitutes, fats, soups, desserts, and beverages. But with all these categories that he can eat they will have to be soft, pureed, whipped and cooked so that he can eat it more easily. 6. What is the Ensure Complete supplement that was ordered? Determine additional options for Mr. Campbell that would be appropriate for a high-calorie, high-protein beverage supplement. Ensure Complete is a balanced nutrition supplement to help gain or maintain a healthy weight. It is an all in one blend that offers 6 grams fat, 33 grams of carbohydrates and 9 grams of protein. It also included 26 essential vitamins and minerals including antioxidants. An additional option is carnation breakfast essentials. In 9fl ounces it has 1 gram of fat, 39 grams of carbohydrates and 13 grams of protein. 7. Assess Mr. Campbell’s height and weight. Calculate his BMI and % usual body weight. Mr. Campbell is 6’3† and 156 pounds. 156lbs/2.2kg=70.9 kg 75inches x .0254m=1.9m 70.9/1.9^2 =19.6 which indicates normal weight with that BMI Percent usual body weight 156lbs/220lbs x 100= 70.9% 8. After reading the physician’s history and physical, identify any signs or symptoms that support the diagnosis of malnutrition using the proposed definitions of malnutrition by AND/ASPEN malnutrition guidelines. What characterizes adult malnutrition is inadequate energy intake, weight loss, loss of muscle mass, loss of subcutaneous fat, fluid accumulation and evidence of inadequate intake. Looking at Mr. Campbell’s history it says that he has lost weight, is dehydrated, and feels weak. In his physical he says he feels like he cannot do anything and weak all over. He appears to look cachectic which makes him look older than his actual age. His neurological strength is reduced, he has declined muscle tone and his blood work is low which is relates to malnutrition. 9. Evaluate Mr. Campbell’s initial nursing assessment. What important factors noted in his nutrition assessment may support the diagnosis of malnutrition? Mr. Campbell lost over 60 pounds 1-2 years ago. He is at 70.9% of his usual body weight. He is at less than 5% for intake percent of meals with sips of liquids. His recommended fluid requirement is 2000-2500 mL, but he is consuming 360 mL without an IV. Mr. Campbell’s intake has been unsatisfactory to meet the required nutritional needs. 10. What is a Braden score? Assess Mr. Campbell’s score. How does this relate to his nutritional status? The Braden score is a tool used to help predict a patients level of risk for developing a pressure ulcer. It assess a patient by measuring six different criteria’s: Sensory perception: this measures a patient’s capability to distinguish discomfort that is related to pressure on different parts of the body. This shows a patients ability to be able to react to pressure related discomfort. Moisture: constant skin moisture can pose risk to the integrity of a person’s skin by causing damage and being at risk for epidermal erosion. Activity: this looks at level of physical activity because little activity causes breakdown of muscles and tissue. Mobility: this assess the physical competency to move and the willingness to move. Nutrition: this looks at pattern of daily nutrition and if having an imbalance of nutrition which would indicate a high risk in this category. Friction and Shear: this measures the amount of assistance a person needs to move and the degree of sliding on beds or chairs that they might experience. This looks at the sliding motion that can cause shear which is the skin and bone moving in opposite directions causing breakdown of cell membranes. Most of the categories have a rate of 1-4 except friction and shear which is a rate of 1-3. Mr. Campbell’s Braden score is a 17 which means he is at a low risk for developing a pressure ulcer. Getting a Braden score can tell us if that a patients food intake is very poor to excellent. 11. Identify any signs (including laboratory values) or symptoms from the physician’s history and physical and from the nursing assessment that are consistent with dehydration. Mr. Campbell is very weak. His skin turgor test showed that it is tenting. He is only meeting 360 ml of 2000-2500 mL of his fluid requirements. His skin condition is ecchymosis, dryness and tears. This all relates to being dehydrated. It shows his sodium levels are high which leads to an increase of fluid loss. He does have high blood urea nitrogen levels which forms when protein break down and higher levels can indicate dehydration. 12. Determine Mr. Campbell’s energy and protein requirements. For the critically ill, mechanically ventilated patient, you might consider the Penn State equation (Steps of calculation using Penn State Equation). However, Mr. Campbell is not mechanically ventilated. This is an important factor to consider. Explain the rationale for the method you use to calculate these requirements. The usual recommendation for protein is 1.0 to 1.5 g protein/kg/day but for a person who is very ill it should be estimated at 2 grams protein per kg a day with ideal body weight and energy needs. With Mr. Campbell being malnourished I would calculate protein requirement with 1.5 and 2.0. 1.5grams x 70.9 kg (his body weight)= 106.4 grams 2.0grams x 70.9kg= 141.8 grams So his protein intake should range from 106.4 to 141.8 based on how his body responds to the intake level. 13. Determine Mr. Campbell’s fluid requirements. Compare this with the information on the intake/output report. He should be receiving around 2000 mL at least of fluids. He is orally in taking 360mL with an IV that gives him 2,160mL and his output is 1,444 with his net I/O being a +1,076. 14. From the nutrition history, assess Mr. Campbell’s usual dietary intake. a) Use the USDA Super Tracker to estimate intake. I searched USDA Super Tracker and every link told me that it was discontinued. b) How does his estimated intake compare to the requirements that you calculated for him? Egg 70calories 6gprotein Coffee 5 calories Toast  ½ slice 52 calories 2.5g protein Ensure complete 220 calories 9g protein Soup  ½ cup 59 calories .9protein Milk  ½ cup 62 calories 4g protein Ground turkey 3oz 94 calories 15g protein Potatoes mashed 59 calories 1g protein Total calories: 621 calories with total 38grams of protein He is nowhere close to meeting requirements for either. He is very low on calories he should be having a day. And very low on protein as well. c) Can your evaluation of his dietary intake contribute to the evidence for diagnosing malnutrition? It can be seen that Mr. Campbell’s intake is very little and not receiving much nourishment from what he is eating. Evaluating his intake can help diagnose malnutrition along with all the other assessments that are done to determine malnourishment. 15. Identify the pertinent nutrition problems and the corresponding nutrition diagnoses and write at least two PES statements with one focused on the clinical domain. Malnutrition related to tongue squamous cell carcinoma as evidenced by unintended weight loss of 29.1% of usual body weight in the past 2 years, reduced energy intake with lack of appetite and decreased muscle tone of patient. Insufficient energy intake related to patient’s inability to ingest adequate energy as evidenced by patient’s declined appetite and failure to consume required needs from diet. 16. Determine the appropriate intervention for each nutrition diagnosis. Being seen that Mr. Campbell cannot meet his nutritional needs orally an enteral nutrition route needs to be started within 48 hours following his admission. The objective will be to accomplish and maintain a healthy body mass and body fat. Enteral nutrition will help promote a heathy weight gain and give him nourishment. His input and output will be monitored along with his GI tolerance to make sure it is all functioning well. His calories, protein, carbohydrates and fats will be upped to a level that will give him his energy needs. He will consume in small quantities and be on a mechanical soft diet so it is easier to intake orally. It will be recommended to intake lots of fluids and consume a nutritious beverage supplement. 17. Identify the steps you would take to monitor Mr. Campbell’s nutritional status while he is hospitalized. I would monitor his weight, albumin levels, oral intake, enteral caloric intake and when oral intake is increased. Main focus would be looking for a healthy weight gain and that he is receiving nutritional needs to put on that weight and reestablish his muscle.

Fast Food Is A Major Issue For The United States - 1807 Words

Fast food restaurants have emerged to be a major issue for people in the United States, they have been around since the late 18th century and the fast food industry have only increased parallel to obesity rates in America. Fast food restaurants contribute to the drastic rise in obesity rate in the past 3 decades. â€Å"More than 9 million US children and adolescents are obese, and just as many are at risk of becoming obese(Davis 505). At first fast food impacted people in a positive way, for example because it was convenient and it was a sporadic option for a meal. Currently, the American society has relied more on fast food restaurants than they did years ago. Serious health problems have surfaced from the increased consumption of fast foods in children and adults. Fast food has lead obesity to become a major issue in the United States. Obesity has highly increased over the years, â€Å"Childhood obesity has more than doubled in children and quadrupled in adolescents in the past 3 0 years† (CDC). In the past three decades fast food has contributed to obesity because of its convenience, cost, ingredients, portion sizes, and advertisements. One of the main factors of fast food is convenience. Fast food’s convenient virtue has contributed in the increase of obesity. Ever since fast food restaurants have been around, many people have resorted to these restaurants for a quick meal. For those who work and do not have time to even prepare themselves a meal, these types of restaurantsShow MoreRelatedThe Precarious Relationship between the United States and Saudi Arabia1481 Words   |  6 PagesIn the 1940s the United States brought on wave of globalization that ravaged Western Europe. 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Mercury Messenger Takes its Final Plunge

Florence Nightingale As A Nurse - 1552 Words

According to the Merriam Webster Dictionary, a nurse is defined as â€Å"a person who cares for the sick or infirm.† Florence Nightingale was a nurse. During the 1800’s, the Victorian Era, nurses were given a second definition beside the one listed before. Nurses were considered menial laborers, until Miss Florence took control. Although recently her position has been considered outdated, losing it’s preciousness, Florence Nightingale and the influence she had on so many lives is not to go without notice. Florence Nightingale deserves an unalterable prestigious place in our history, due to the pursue of her career at all costs, the definite push in the right direction she gave nursing, and her dedicated time serving others during the Crimean War. First of all, the United Kingdom, as well as the United States has become impatient with a lack of nurses. 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Nightingale’s views of the nurse’s role also set the foundation of what became the guidelines of how medical attention is given today (Bornstein 42). Born on May 12, 1820, to William Edward and Frances Nightingale, Florence was

Complicated and Tragic Stories of The Glass Menagerie by...

The universe is believed to consist of sexvigintillion observable atoms or 10^81, humans are one out of 8.7 million species on earth, and you are only one out of 7, 221,306,800 people on earth. With numbers such as these it becomes clear how your life is simply a struggle for existence. In the novel The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams Tom, an aspiring writer attempts to survive within the confines of his tiny apartment, and resist his urge to escape. Likewise hundreds of miles away, during a completely separate time a young entrepreneur, Jay Gatsby, struggles to exist within a world of wealth in the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. Their battle for existence is evident through each authors use of characterization,†¦show more content†¦Even more because he is trapped within his mothers home he is unable to experience life. Toms desire for adventure can also be seen through his constant comparisons between his father and himself, and through his few jealous claims about his fathers ability to just leave. Overall, Toms inability to be independent, and his lack of expression also makes it impossible for Tom to be anyone, or to live because rather than seeing Tom as his own person, his mother views him as an asset. With this attitude Amanda forces Tom into the shadows, where he is unable to truly exist. From beginning to end, the story of Tom, Amanda, and Laura is very life-changing for them, and transformational for the viewers. Tom for example through Williams use of characterization is able to separate himself from a position of submission to dominance. This promotion of sorts is what allows him to conquer his demons, and truly exist. Tom himself is able to do this by joining the Union of Merchant Seamen, which he plans to use as an escape from his mothers suffocating apartment, and his sisters glass menagerie. Also, through Toms leaving the audience is able to see that he has conquered not only his internal, but external conflicts. A manda, his mother of course was Tom external conflict, constantly enacting her power, stress and inabilities upon Tom which was obviously the bigger of his many issues. Next Toms internal conflict was his

Society and the Roles We Play/Zimbardo and the Hoax Free Essays

string(117) " The guards forced the prisoners to write to their families constantly that everything was going well in the prison\." Psych 333: Social Psychology Society and the Roles We Play/Zimbardo and the Hoax As social human beings we encounter the powerful effects of roles every day. Whether you’re an experienced doctor or a propane truck driver, your roles are much more than just a small piece of a big picture. Our roles are in nature a social element that when used correctly can slightly or completely alter another’s. We will write a custom essay sample on Society and the Roles We Play/Zimbardo and the Hoax or any similar topic only for you Order Now When used maliciously our roles can not only psychologically damage an individual or a handful of people, but also the masses. Adolf Hitler’s role as a chancellor changed the roles of normal German soldiers to genocidal henchmen which in turn changed the Jews’ roles as a race of beautiful people to what seemed like verminous animals needing extermination. The dynamics of social roles are not always this drastic but when they are, our life as we know it changes. To see how similar a real life tragedy and a staged study are with damaging effects of roles, it is important to analyze the Stanford Prison Experiment and a very horrible real life tragedy comparatively. In order to explain such a socially fascinating phenomenon as the Stanford Prison Experiment led by Zimbardo, we must first see what social psychological factors were at play. First it is important to know that all participants in this experiment including the prisoners, the guards, and the confederates gave their full consent to participate. This is important because the main method of this experiment would make the participants take on different roles. This method helped determine the purpose of this experiment which is whether or not the participants’ would perceive their roles as pretending or reality. This perception was shown through behavior from both prisoners and guards as a self-fulfilling prophecy. This is evident because the reciprocal behaviors expressed by the prisoner participants and the guard participants would amplify each other’s behavior. An increase of aggression causes an increase in submissiveness which in turn amplifies aggression and continuous into a vicious cycle. The experiment has been argued to have been unsuccessful; however the experiment contained a high amount of experimental realism. Although the experiment was unethical it yielded fascinating results from both the prisoners and the guards. First I believe it is important to analyze the behavior exhibited by the participants in the experiment. Prior to the experiment, the participants were in fact informed about the nature of the experiment and the moment they were arrested they would assume their roles as prisoners. A majority of the experiment was done inside of the prison. It was during this time that the prisoners displayed many social psychological behaviors that result from playing a submissive role. The progression of the experiment’s time also caused some of these interesting behaviors to amplify. It is important to understand that the underlining quality that the prisoners in this study exhibited was learned helplessness. This is predominantly evident when the prisoners’ acts of rebellion toward the guards diminish. This leaved the prisoners with an overall sense of helplessness. They were more likely to submit to the hostile and aggressive demands of the guards. Although some of the demands of the guards such as doing countless numbers of pushups would seem unethical in a real prison, even a participant assuming a false role as a prisoner follows such preposterous demands. What is more perplexing about this study was the fact that these participants in fact knew that they were not really guilty of any crime but as the experiment progressed and the guards became more aggressive the inmates displayed very passive behavior because they knew that their behaviors could not change the current predicament that they were in. Another remarkable concept that helped reinforce the participants’ roles as prisoners was the Saying-Becomes-Believing Effect. In one instance the participant known as prisoner 8612 would either rebel or would show what would be seen as undesirable behaviors in the guards’ eyes. After doing this the guards would have the inmates punished and also have them chant â€Å"Prisoner 8612 was bad†. The prisoners seemed to show a certain degree of animosity towards prisoner 8612 and eventually led to his outright emotional breakdown and made him to truly believe that he was a bad prisoner. This again shows the strength of learned helplessness in social cognition. Prisoner 8612 believed he was a bad prisoner; therefore he became a bad prisoner. The only thing more fascinating than the growing submission of the prisoners had to be the increasing aggression by the prisoners. It is a confounding concept that in most prisons, the idea that prison guards act more harshly towards an inmate because they are in fact psychologically feeding off of the prisoners’ submissiveness. The guards in the study were introduced exactly as the prisoners were to the study’s nature just as different roles. Their roles would begin the moment they arrested the prisoners. Upon arriving to the prison however, the guards would assume an entirely different role than a prisoner. These soon-to-be tyrants would use one of the most powerful social psychological weapons in their armory: deception. The Stanford Prison guards used deception in a number of ways during this study. In the experiment they introduced the privilege cell and the penalty box to the prisoners. The privilege cell was a much nicer cell than the ones given to the rest of the prisoners. When the guards put certain prisoners in the privilege cell this deceived the other prisoners into believing that this prisoner was good which in turn caused the prisoners to be more behaved. The same deception was used in punishing the prisoner with the penalty box which was a small broom closet sized room which would be used to keep the prisoners when they were bad. Another method of deception that the guards inflicted was towards the family of the prisoners. The guards forced the prisoners to write to their families constantly that everything was going well in the prison. You read "Society and the Roles We Play/Zimbardo and the Hoax" in category "Papers" Along with these letters the prisoners would also force the prisoners to identify themselves as their assigned numbers rather than their actual names. I confounding factor that also helped in the amplifying aggression of the guards towards the prisoners was their act of justification. It is rather odd that regular people who for the most part did not assume any kind of authoritative role use authority in such a severe way. When questioning the severity of their actions towards the prisoners justified their actions by telling themselves that they are being told to be this way towards the prisoners and also that the prisoners’ behaviors caused them to bring the consequences upon themselves. The experiment seemed so real that it could not even complete the full desired duration. This experiment will always be remembered as one of the biggest contributions to social psychology because it showed the powerful effects of submissiveness vs. authority. It was because of this experiment also question and reevaluate what is and isn’t ethical in social psychology experiments. It also shows us how people whether they are in positions of authority or not can manipulate this powerful psychological element against others causing not only psychological and emotional ramifications, but also legal ones as well. This was seen in one of the cruelest hoaxes ever played. The hoax that I am describing was one that went from what seemed to be a mean prank call, to dozens of legal repercussions and countless victims of emotional and psychological distress. These calls were made by David R. Stewart. Although Stewart seemed like a man of average intelligence, it wouldn’t be unfair to consider him to be a social psychological genius. Stewart’s calls as a person in a position of authority not only manipulated his victims but also tormented them with a number of social psychological weapons but also used the psychological factors of his victims against themselves. He was sometimes able to take two innocent people and make one a victim of sexual assault and the other a victim in a single phone call. In order to analyze how Stewart was able to succeed at this it is important to see what psychological factors were in play both in the mind of Stewart and his victims. First, Stewart assumed a role of authority as a police officer, corporate employee, or federal officer. This role helped Stewart claim legitimacy to his victims. Although this would seem like enough to control his victims he also used a factor that was possessed not by him but by his victims. Stewart attacked those who worked in the food industry. This may seem odd but it is fact a very intelligent group of people to attack because people in the food industry are trained to be more obedient than others traditionally would. Society’s schema of the food industry portrays it in such a fashion that the number one priority of the industry’s employees is customer satisfaction. In order to achieve customer satisfaction the employees must obey the customer’s wishes. When the employee is on this type of a mindset it isn’t unfair to say that their vulnerability to authority would also heighten. The heightened obedience to authority also arises from another social schema of law enforcement. We tend to live in the illusion that because law enforcement has a higher authority than civilians do, we must do everything they tell us to. This schema is also the reason police often get a confession or information leading to a confession from people because although individuals have the right to remain silent, police use authority to trick them into confessing. The perplexing aspect of this event is not just the acts themselves that were performed, but the fact that the acts grew more and more sexually perverse. Although the act of the hoax itself was perplexing, it is even more fascinating on how the public criticized the whole phenomenon. This alone had so many interesting psychological happenings. Even news broadcasters like Fox-TV called the â€Å"victims† of this hoax were â€Å"colossally stupid†. Another made a statement quoting â€Å"They had the critical ability to decide whether to carry out their orders†. Statements like these show both a hindsight bias and a self-serving bias. People claim that they would never perform perverse and lewd acts on another because an authoritative figure told them to do so. The self-serving bias is the fact that they believe they would personally behave more favorably and the hindsight bias is the fact they claim they would have behaved differently after they heard of the incident. Although people harshly criticized the victims Stewart did in fact con two thirds of the people he called. This proves an interesting argument because people who read this story will most likely claim that they will never behave in such the fashion the victims did, but because of these social biases it is impossible to know if one would truly fall for a hoax like that. Many look at Zimbardo’s and Milgram’s studies and see the obvious social psychological connection between both. What is interesting is how this real world hoax and the two above studies have very predominant similarities. Both instances involve two different groups of normal people assuming a role and watch how their roles completely change their lives. In both situations people who would never normally behave to the roles they were given behave exactly to their roles. In both situations the submissiveness of one person amplifies the aggression and authority of another. In both situations the victims’ roles caused long term psychological and emotional distress. It shows us a society full of schemas that is naturally obedient in following orders whether we believe them to be right or wrong. So in essence these incidents are very relevant to each other and also to social psychology as a field. It is relevant to how we think, how we behave, and how we interact with others. The average person would say that Zimbardo’s study was obviously unethical. This is true because it is unethical. The American Psychological Association provides the Institutional Review Boards to keep experiments ethical and protect the participants in this study. The fact that participants in the study underwent emotional distress proves that the study was unethical. In hindsight, if Stewart’s hoax was indeed replicated it would be terribly unethical to say the least. It is because Zimbardo’s study being so similar to the hoax that roles become psychological damaging. In Zimbardo’s experiment, the participants felt the effects of a six day role long after the study. In Stewart’s hoax, just a few minutes or hours changed some of the victims involved for the rest of their lives. Although it is fair to challenge ourselves as psychologist, experiments with the psychological severity of the Stanford prison experiment are not needed because we know the social psychological implications of role playing. This analysis fits very well with the social psychological perspective. Roles, schemas, and biases show the dynamic of the human’s psychological potential. You do not have to be a PhD psychologist to manipulate more than sixty average people to perform sexual or lewd acts on other innocent people. It also does not take a PhD psychologist to give average people a role that is unordinary to them and watch them change as a person. What seems like simple terms in social psychology can be used as powerful and manipulative weapons in psychological warfare. These concepts also help realize the importance of the roles that we play every day and how they can change the social world as we know it. How to cite Society and the Roles We Play/Zimbardo and the Hoax, Papers

Contribution of APES110 Towards Developing Public - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theContribution of APES110 Towards Developing Public Trust. Answer: It is important for the accounting profession to restore public trust and confidence. Zucker (1986) notes that public trust is the foundation upon which public trust was founded. Accountability and governance reforms have identified the need for corporations and accounting profession to become increasingly accountable than before. Professional accountants and corporations require support from various stakeholders in order to achieve their accountability objective. To gain this support, there must be trust among the parties. Members of the accounting profession are expected to do the right thing by respecting the interest of the stakeholders (Brooks Dunn, 2011). The accounting profession is expected to develop public trust by conducting themselves in a manner geared towards serving their interests.In 2006, the Australian Professional and Ethical Standards Board (APESB)laid down the APES110 Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants to improve public confidence and prevent undesirabl e accounting practices (Han Fan, Woodbine, Cheng, 2013). To provide international credibility, the APES 110 is aligned with the IFAC Code issued by the International Ethics Standards Board of Accountants (IESBA). In accordance with APES 110, members of CPA Australia are mandated to comply with the fundamental principles of objectivity, integrity, due care, professional competence, and behavior. In addition to satisfying a clients needs, a professional accountant is required to act in public interest. Although Pflugrath et al. (2007) notes that, when making decisions on ethical issues, accounting professionals in Australia often pay attention to ethical codes of conduct, there exist malpractices that reduce public trust in the accounting profession. Accounting credibility crisis from the Enron case, Arthur Andersen and Worldcom are examples of cases situations whereby ethical codes of conduct failed in ensuring public trust (Brooks Dunn, 2011). The underlying issue of any financial misconduct case is usually related to trustworthiness. Trustworthy and ethical behavior is essential in accounting and business in general. Due to the fundamental role of accountants in providing financial informat ion to lenders, investors and other stakeholders, they are required to behave responsibly while in their professional capacity and maintain trustworthy and reliable records (Caliskan, Akbas, Esen, 2014). In order to enhance public trust in the accounting profession, the first aspect to pay attention to is the initial engagement with possible clients. Section 210 of the APES 110 Code underlines the ethical criteria an accountant should comply with before accepting a new engagement or client. An accounting professional is required to consider if the engagement will create threats that may hinder his or her compliance the fundamental principles described in the Code. These threats may result from questionable accounting practices or illegal client activity. Furthermore, as per Section 220 of the Code, accounting professionals in public practice are required to identify ethical conflicts of interest and apply relevant safeguards to cope with them. Compliance with Section 210 and Section 220 of the Code would mean that the accounting professionals will provide ethical services that are in line with the public interest right from the start. The effect of this is an increased public trust i n the accounting profession. As is the case with any professional code,the underlying fundamental of the APES110 Code is independence. Independence is importantin preserving integrity and objectivity. To adopt the independence principle, Sections 290 and 291 of the Code underline the independence requirements required of accounts in public practice.The Code looks at accounting independence from two perspectives; independence of mind and that of appearance. Independence of mind requires accounting professionals to uphold their objectivity and resist influences such as client pressure or any other factor that may hinder their independence. Independence in appearance relates to the conclusion of an informed third party on whether objectivity and integrity of an accounting professional have been compromised. By maintaining both mind and appearance levels of independence, accountants will be able to conduct themselves in such a way that reassures the public that their reports and analyses are accurate and free from i nternal and external threats Members of the public usually seek accounting services from an accountant knowing that they can trust the individual's service delivery ability in consistency with professional and ethical standards. The Code requires a member to present internal and external financial information honestly and in accordance with Australian Accounting Standards. This provision enhances public trust by ensuring confidence in the financial information provided by practicing accounting professionals. Members are also required to act in sufficient professional expertise. These all contribute towards cementing a high-quality outlook on the accountancy profession. Members of the public such as investors will have faith in the information provided and make confident investment decisions. Self-interest is among the greatest threats that hinder the development of public interest. According to Sections 240 and 260 of the Code, self-interest is created as a result of issues related to gifts, hospitality, fees and other forms of remuneration.The quoted fee for an engagement may influence the performance of an accounting professional in accordance with accounting standards.Section 260 of the Code stipulates that an informed third party would consider an offer to an accounting professional as inconsequential to the ethical decisions made by the accountant. Safeguards should be applied to offers that hinder the delivery of accounting services as per the fundamental principles outlined in the Code. Accounting professionals must put thepublic interest above their own. Their practices should be geared towards enhancing the communitys well-being(Dellaportas Davenport, 2008).The public will develop greater trust to an accounting profession where the providers of the service are willing to put their self-interest aside for the greater good. Regulations of the APES110, therefore, contribute to developing greater trust of the public in the accounting profession Section 250 of the Code describes the manner in which an accounting professional may market his or her services. The modes of marketing such as advertising must not give a negative portrayal of ethical standards that govern the delivery of the accounting services. The media is a powerful tool in influencing the perspective, attitude, and decisions made by members of the public. Section 250 of the APES110 Code, therefore, regulates the interaction between an accounting professional and the marketing media. Marketing campaigns that complement the ethical and professional standards observed by members of the accounting profession will go a long way in ensuring the development of greater trust of the public in the accounting profession. Objectivity is among the fundamental principles governing the accounting profession. The ASPES110 Code emphasizes of the importance objectivity in Section 280. Compliance with the objectivityprinciple requires a member in public practice to refrain from engagements with parties in which he or she is related to, or has an interest. Objectivity is core in enhancing public trust. An accountant must deliver services free from favor towards family and other personal or business relationships. In the modern evolving business environment, there are new and complicated challenges. Furthermore, the expectations of the public are higher than before. A professional accountants value is based upon their accountability to their organizations and more importantly, their relevance to promoting public interest (Baker, 2005). In conclusion, Brooks Dunn (2011) state that acceptance of their responsibility to the public is the distinguishing mark of any profession. In order to maintain a conducive business environment, the accountancy profession is expected to maintain integrity and objectivityin serving the public which consists of lenders, the government, investors, employees, employees, clients, and business community in general. This requirement imposes a public interest responsibility to the accountancy profession. Therefore, an accounting profession is not only responsible to his or her client, but also to the public. In order to provide public value, accountants must be trustedin their initiatives to protect public interest. In its aim to facilitate the enhancement of public trust, the APES110 Code for Ethics for Professional Accountants requires members to identify and apply safeguards to threats that may hinder their compliance to fundamental principles.Regardless of the task or role an accountant has, these ethical standards must be complied with. Ensuring sustainable confidence and trust in the accounting profession requires the collective effort of all affected parties (Gray Collison, 2002). References Accounting Professional and Ethical Standards Board (APESB). (2013). APES 110 Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants. Baker, C. R. (2005). What is the meaning of the public interest? Examining the ideology of the American public accounting profession.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,18(5), 690-703. Brooks, L. J., Dunn, P. (2011).Business professional ethics. Cengage Learning. Caliskan, A. O., Akbas, H. E., Esen, E. (2014). Ethical Dilemmas and Decision Making in Accounting. InCorporate Governance(pp. 241-252). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Cheffers, M., Pakaluk, M. (2007).Understanding accounting ethics. Sutton, MA: Allen David Press. Dellaportas, S., Davenport, L. (2008). Reflections on the public interest in accounting.Critical perspectives on accounting,19(7), 1080-1098. Gray, R., Collison, D. (2002). Cant see the wood for the trees, cant see the trees for the numbers? Accounting education, sustainability and the public interest.Critical Perspectives on Accounting,13(5-6), 797-836. Han Fan, Y., Woodbine, G., Cheng, W. (2013). A study of Australian and Chinese accountants attitudes towards independence issues and the impact on ethical judgements.Asian Review of Accounting,21(3), 205-222. Modarres, A., Rafiee, A. (2011). Influencing factors on the ethical decision making of Iranian accountants.Social Responsibility Journal,7(1), 136-144. Pflugrath, G., Martinov-Bennie, N., Chen, L. (2007). The impact of codes of ethics and experience on auditor judgments.Managerial Auditing Journal,22(6), 566-589. Professional Ethics - AICPA. (2017). Aicpa.org. Retrieved 19 September 2017, from https://www.aicpa.org/InterestAreas/ProfessionalEthics/Pages/professionalethics.aspx Roles and Importance of Professional Accountants in Business | IFAC. (2017). Ifac.org. Retrieved 19 September 2017, from https://www.ifac.org/news-events/2013-10/roles-and-importance-professional-accountants-business Zucker, L. G. (1986). Production of trust: Institutional sources of economic structure, 18401920.Research in organizational behavior.